Writing skills by Nahid Esfandiari

Approaches to learning and teaching writing 

Writing within an environmentalist approach ''' 1. '''

Up to the end of the 1960s, writing was neglected in the language learning

Field writing was considered as secondary to speech since it was regarded as just its orthographic representation. writing was seen as a language skill which served as

reinforcement of learning grammatical and vocabulary knowledge, which in turn served to achieve oral correctness..

'''. Writing within an innatist approach 2 '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">By the late 1960s attention began to towards ways in which text

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">could be developed. Flower and Hayes who proposed a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">cognitive model of recursive writing consisting of three major elements: 1)

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">planning stage, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in turn subdivided into smaller processes such as generating

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">ideas, organizing these ideas and setting the goals for writing; 2) the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">translating stage, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in which writers articulate and write down their thoughts

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">generated in the first stage; and 3) the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">reviewing stage, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in which writers

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">evaluate and revise the text. Researchers then, began to recommend focusing on

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">writing not as a product but as a process, thereby decreasing the focus on grammar and spelling This approach highlighted personal writing, the writer’s creativity, and fluency

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">  

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   .3. Writing within an interactionist approach         '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">By the late 1970s beginning of the early 1980s, attention toward the influence of the interactionnist approach to language learning. Winter and Hoey was distinguished

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">three main patterns of textual organization: 1) the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">problem-solution pattern <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, in which a problem is presented in a given situation

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">followed by the response to the problem and the evaluation of the response

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as a solution to the problem; 2) the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">hypothetical-real <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">pattern, which

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">is characterized by, first, the presentation of a statement which is to be supported

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">or rejected, and then the affirmation or denial of that statement, and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">3) the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">general-particular <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">pattern, in which a generalization is presented

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">followed by an exemplification of that generalization.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Halliday developed a systematic way of describing language in terms of its functions

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">within social contexts. Basic to his theory was the notion of <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">register, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">which

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">is a functional language variation and is analyzed on the basis of three variables:

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">field, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">or the social function; <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">tenor, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">or the role of the participants; and

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">mode, <span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">or what the language is doing.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">From an ESP genre approach, it has been recommended that three main phases

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">should be follow in that instruction) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">modeling <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, in which the teachers provides an

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">explicit explanation of the genre to be dealt with; 2) <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"">negotiating <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, in which the teacher

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">guides the class composition by with; 2) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">negotiating <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, in which the teacher

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in which the students construct the genre by working through several

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">drafts in consultation with the teacher.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Teaching writing within a communicative competence framework 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Discourse competence. '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Discourse competence enables writers to use discourse features to achieve a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">well-formed written text given a communicative goal and context in which

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">it has to be written These discourse features involve cohesion

<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:center"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   (e.g., reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical chains), coherence as well as formal schemata or knowledge of the structure of written genres

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   .2. Linguistic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Linguistic competence comprises basic elements

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of written communication such as vocabulary or lexicon, grammar

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">rules, and conventions in mechanics. Regarding lexical resources, writers

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">need to know basic word meanings and how these meanings, for example,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">may differ depending on context In order to use words, writers

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">also need to become familiar with knowledge of the grammatical system.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Thus, writers need to pay attention to form in order to learn the grammar

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">rules underlying the syntactic relations as well as the structure of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">clauses. Additionally, writers’ knowledge of the mechanics is essential in

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">writing since faulty punctuation or spelling mistakes may result in an illegible

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">written text

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   '''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Pragmatic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">written clues to meaning include: text layout and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">graphic devices (such as punctuation and italics, among many other

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">means), syntactic devices (cleft constructions), and linguistic devices (such

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as the choice of verbs or adverbs), as well as awareness of the physical

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">location in which the text is to appear or appears

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">An important point to remember here is that a written text also provides

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">important clues to meaning and that mastery of how these clues is essential

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">for writers if their ultimate goal is to make readers achieve a full understanding

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of a given written text

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.'''4. Intercultural competence.'''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Intercultural competence deals with the knowledge of how to produce written

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">texts within a particular sociocultural context. In order to produce a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">competently written discourse within a particular culture, writers need to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">understand and adhere to the rules and norms of behavior that exist in a

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">target language community, as well as to develop cross-cultural awareness,

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.'''5. Strategic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">writers need to possess a set of learning strategies to write effectively.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the relevance of encouraging learners to develop the strategy

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of revising their drafts based on their own opinion or suggestions from

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">peers and/or teachers.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">writers also need to possess communication strategies to overcome

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">limitations in the language area, such as paraphrasing, restructuring or literal

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">translation from the first language

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Recent research 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   .1. Writers’ texts

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Writer processes

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Participants

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Contexts

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The future 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Corpus linguistics

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:200.8pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">                                                                .2. Discourse communities and their valued genres <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Situated texts and their domains (activity systems)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Multi-modal environments

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:145.3pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">                                                    5. The writer in the text: voice, persona, stance, and evaluation

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.6. Critical pedagogy: Ideology

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">. A framework for describing goals to improve ESL writing '''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">   .1. Goals as propositions with a force

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Objects of goals

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Actions taken

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Contexts of actions

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.5. Origins of and responsibilities for goals

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Implications for teaching L2 writing 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Organize courses to foster students’ goals and their achievement

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">. Promote a range of goals and uses of resources

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Respond to students’ writing in respect to their personal goals

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Research on second language writing (Brown)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1.Composing versus writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    Writing products are often the result of thinking,drafting,and revising procedures that require specialized skills ,skills that not every speaker develops naturally. Students exhibit a number of different styles and preferences in their composing processes.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2.Process versus product

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    Product of writing; the essay,the report,the story, and what that productshould look like. Compositions were supposed to (a) meet certain standards of prescribed English rhetorical style (b) reflect accurate grammar,and (c) be organized in conformity with what the audience would consider to be conventional

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     Process approaches do most of the following :

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">. focus on the process of writing that leads to the final written product.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">.give students time to write and rewrite.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">.place central importance on the process of revision.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">.encourage feedback from both the instructor and peers.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3.Contrastive rhetoric

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    Kaplan's thesis was that different languages have different patterns of written discourse.English discourse ,was schematically described as proceeding in a straight line,semitic writing in a zigzag formation,oriental writing discourse in a spiraling line ….

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">   According to Connor,a theory of contrastive rhetoric is influenced by more than first language patterns,factors such as linguistic relativity,theory of rhetoric,text linguistics,discoursetypes and genres,literacy,and translation all contribute toward a comprehensive theory of contrastive rhetoric.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4.Differences between L 1 and L2 writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    There are many differences between   the two ,as Silva found that L2 writers did less planning, and that they were less fluent,less accurate,and less effective in stating goals and organizing material.Differences in usingappropriat grammatical and rhetorical conventions and lexical variety were also found ,among other features.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5. Authenticity

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     In English for Academic Purposes,writing ranges from short phrases,to brief paragraphs,to brief erport,to a full –length research paper.to vocational –technic English,stucents need to fill out forms,write simple messages,write certain conventional reports.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">      Another   authenticity is to distinguish between real writing and display writing.Real writing is when the reader doesn't know the answer and want information.In academic/ school contexts,if the instructor is the so reader ,writing is primarily for the display of a student's knowledge.wrtten exercises ,short-answer essays,and other writing in test situations are instances of display writing.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6.Responding to student writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">      This facilitative role of the writing teacher has inspired research on the role of the teacher as a responder to students'writing.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7.Voice and identity

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    Issue of how preserve the cultural and social identities of students but at the same time to teach English language writing conventions. This issue is especially acute in the case of EAP writing programs where a major goal is for students to write acceptable academic prose in their respective subject-matter fields.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Characteristics of written language ; A writer's view

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1.permanence

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2.production time

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3.Distance

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4.orthography

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5.complexity

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6.vocabulary

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7.formality

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Type of classroom writing performance

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1,Imitative, or writing down

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2,Intensive, or controlled

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3,self-writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4,Display writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5,Real wrting

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Principles for teaching writing skills

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1,Incorporate practices of good writers

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2,Balance process and product

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3,Account for cultural/literary backgrounds

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4,Connect reading and writing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5,Provide as much authentic writing as possible

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6,Frame your techniques in terms of prewriting   ,drafting,and revising stages

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7,Strive to offer techniques that are asinteractive as possible