Speaking skills by Nahid Esfandiari

Approaches to learning and teaching speaking 

.1. Speaking within an environmentalist approach

learning to speak a language, in a similar way to any other type of learning, followed a stimulus-response-reinforcement pattern which involved constant practice and

the formation of good habits. In this pattern, speakers were first exposed to linguistic

input as a type of external stimulus  and their response consisted of imitating

and repeating such input. If this was done correctly, they received

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a positive <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">reinforcement <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">by other language users within their same environment

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">. The continuous practice of this speech-pattern until good habits were formed resulted in learning how tospeak. Consequently, it was assumed that speaking a language involved just

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">repeating, imitating and memorizing the input that speakers were exposed

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to. learners were engaged in a series of activities, such as drills

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and substitution exercises, which focused on repeating grammatical structures

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and patterns through intense aural-oral practice.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Speaking within an innatist approach

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">regardless of the environment where speakers were to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">produce language, they had the internal faculty, or competence in Chomsky’s

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">terms, to create and understand an infinite amount of discourse

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">This language ability was possibly due to the fact

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">that speakers had internalized a system of rules which could be transformed

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">into new structures by applying a series of cognitive strategies.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Given this process, speakers’ role changed from merely receiving input and repeating

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">it, as was the view in the environmentalist approach, to actively thinking

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">how to produce language. Consequently, it was assumed that speaking a language was a descontextualized process which just involved the mental

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">transformation of such an internalized system of rules

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Speaking within an interactionist approach

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">interactionist ideas that emphasized the role of the linguistic environment in interaction with the innate capacity for language developmenLevelt Drawing on the discipline

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of cognitive psychology, Levelt proposed a model of speech production

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">whose basic assumption concerned the fact that messages were

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">“planned.” Thus, in order to be able to produce oral language, speakers had

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:96.55pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">                                  to construct a plan on the basis of four major processes: 1) <span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">conceptualiza 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">tion <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which involves the selection of the message content on the basis of the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">situational context and the particular purpose to be achieved; 2) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">formulation <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">which implies accessing, sequencing and choosing words and phrases

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to express the intended message appropriately; 3) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">articulation <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which concerns

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the motor control of the articulatory organs to execute the planned

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">message; and 4) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">monitoring <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which allows speakers to actively identify and

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">correct mistakes if necessary.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">According to Halliday, it could be theorized that, like children who learned to talk because language served a function for them, speakers learned to use language in order to fulfill a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">number of functions given a particular cultural and social context. Therefore,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">speaking was seen as a contextualized process in which both the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">context 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">of culture <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and the ''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">context of situation. ''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif""> Thus, genre was defined as “a purposeful,

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">socially-constructed, communicative event.”

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Regarding the latter type of context, the notion of <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"">register <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">was elaborated considering

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the fact that, within the broader cultural context, speakers also varied their

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">language depending on the social situation in which they were interacting.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Consequently, their choice of a particular register was based on the interaction

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of three contextual variables: 1) the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">field <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which concerns the topic of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">communication; 2) the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">tenor <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which refers to the relationship of the participants;

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and 3) the <span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">mode <span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which involves the channel of communication.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">pragmatics also focused on the importance of <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">interaction <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">In fact, this aspect played a very important role when dealing

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">with pragmatics, since it was claimed that the process of communication

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">did not only focus on the speakers’ intentions, but also on the effects those

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">intentions had on the hearers.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the development of the politeness theory was of great relevance

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">since it described the three sociopragmatic factors which qualified a linguistic

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">form as being appropriate. These factors involved: 1) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">social distance <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">which refers to the degree of familiarity that exists between the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">speaker and hearer; 2) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">power <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which refers to the relative status of a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">speaker with respect to the hearer; and 3) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">degree of imposition <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which refers

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to the type of imposition the speaker is forcing on the hearer. Thus, it was

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">assumed that when one of these factors increased, speakers were expected

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to be more polite so that they did not threaten hearers’ <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">face <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">(i.e., a person’s

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">feeling of self-worth or self-image)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Teaching speaking within a communicative competence framework 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Discourse competence

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Discourse competence involves speakers’ ability to use a variety of discourse features to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">achieve a unified spoken text given a particular purpose and the situational

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">context where it is produced. Such discourse features refer to knowledge of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">discourse markers (e.g., well, oh, I see, okay), the management of various

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">conversational rules (e.g., turn-taking mechanisms, how to open and close a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">conversation), cohesion and coherence, as well as formal schemata (e.g.,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">knowledge of how different discourse types, or genres, are organized).

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Making effective use of all these features during the process of producing

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">               highly active role on the part of speakers.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Linguistic competence

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">             Linguistic competence consists of those elements of the linguistic system,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">such as phonology, grammar and vocabulary, that allow speakers to produce

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">linguistically acceptable utterances

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Regarding phonological aspects, speakers need to possess knowledge of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">suprasegmental, or prosodic, features of the language such as rhythm, stress

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:113.05pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and intonation

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The mastery of these three linguistic aspects (i.e., pronunciation, grammar

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and vocabulary) is, therefore, essential for the successful production of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a piece of spoken discourse since it allows speakers to build grammatically

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">well-formed utterances in an accurate and unhesitating way

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Pragmatic competence

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Pragmatic competence involves speakers’ knowledge of the function or

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">illocutionary force implied in the utterance they intend to produce as well

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as the contextual factors that affect the appropriacy of such an utterance.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Thus, speakers need to master two types of pragmatic knowledge: one dealing

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">with pragmalinguistics and the other focusing on sociopragmatic aspects

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">On the one hand, pragmalinguistics

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">addresses those linguistic resources that speakers can make use of to convey

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a particular communicative act.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">sociopragmatics deals with speakers’ appropriate use

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of those linguistic forms according to the context where the particular utterance

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">is produced, the specific roles the participants play within that contextual

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">situation and the politeness variables of social distance, power and

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">degree of imposition.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Intercultural competence

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Intercultural competence refers to the knowledge of how to produce an

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">appropriate spoken text within a particular sociocultural context. Thus, it

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">involves knowledge of both cultural and non-verbal communication factors

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">on the part of the speaker. Regarding the cultural factors, speakers need to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">be aware of the rules of behavior that exist in a particular community in

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">order to avoid possible miscommunication.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Knowledge of non-verbal means of communication (i.e., body language,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">facial expressions, eye contact, etc.) is also of paramount importance to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">communicate appropriately when producing a spoken text. Speakers need

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to pay careful attention to listeners’ non-verbal movements, such as their

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">body language or whether to maintain or avoid eye contact, in order to be

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">able to repair their intervention if something goes wrong in the course of

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the exchange

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.5. Strategic competence

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">This competence implies speakers’ knowledge of both learning and communication

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">strategies. On the one hand, speakers need to possess learning strategies

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in order to successfully construct a given piece of spoken discourse.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Bygate points out the relevance of <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">repetition <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as a strategy that

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">may allow speakers to contribute to their oral development.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Dalton-Puffer who, pays attention to the importance of <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"">creating purpose <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">as a strategy for encouraging speaking. the use of compensatory strategies, such as

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">circumlocution, paraphrasing, appealing for help or topic selection, assists

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">speakers in making adjustments given an incomplete or failing interaction

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The psycholinguistics of speech processing and language development 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Levelt, in various models of L1 oral interaction (his 1989 version works

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">well for our purposes), proposes that in order to communicate speakers and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">listeners have to process language simultaneously in three main phases.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">First, they need to work on the conceptualisation of messages, in which

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">meanings are planned and tracked; second, they operate a formulation

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">phase, in which words are selected, sequenced, and inflected, or recognized;

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and thirdly, they work at articulatory production or acoustic perception.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The whole is linked of course into the broader socio-cognitive context

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and purposes of speaker and listener. Levelt’s account links well with the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">picture emerging from the kind of analysis that we can derive from

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Bruner’s study. If speakers and listeners have to work simultaneously with

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">new meanings, new formulations and at managing a new articulatory/

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">acoustic system, it makes sense to conclude that some recurrence and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">predictability at the conceptual level is likely to free up capacity to attend to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the articulatory and formulation levels. That is, learners may then find constructive

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">repetition useful to the extent that it can allow them to do the following.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">1. Concept ualisation ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Become familiar with the content of the talk

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Organize the content of the talk for speech

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Explore additional content to add

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">2. Formulation ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Identify and recall relevant vocabulary and grammar for

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">managing the content of the talk and the interpersonal

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">functions (such as referential markers, aspect, tense and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">modality)

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Try out alternative vocabulary and grammatical resources

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Monitor the grammatical features required by the vocabulary

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and syntax

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:401.05pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">                                                                                                                                       cohesion - Develop

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">3. Output ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Attend to speech production

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Attend to interlocutors’ understanding

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Constructive repetition in the classroom: whole class talk, and talk 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">on tasks 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the rationale for encouraging meaningful constructive

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">repetition in the classroom is that it can help to give learners space to work

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">on matching meanings to language, and to integrate attention to the more

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">redundant features (especially grammatical and phonological) into their

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">speech. One common response to the idea of constructive repetition is that

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">it is not welcome by learners, that it does not encourage creativity, and is

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">not appropriate for learning.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">. Task talk '''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">1. External repetition ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Survey tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Interview tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Card games: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Poster carousel: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Pyramid (or “snowball”) tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.2. Internal repetition ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Picture stories: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Picture and map differences tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Prioritising tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Interpretation tasks: 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Problem-solving tasks: 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.3. Internal and external repetition: three-phase “jigsaw” tasks ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">. Whole-class talk

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.1. Plenary topics ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.2. Pre- and post-task talk ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.3. Classroom management ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">How does turn-taking work? '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">The idea of the Transition Relevance Point What signals do speakers send out when a transition relevance point iscoming up?

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Why turn-taking is difficult for learners 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Learners learn sentences

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Turn-taking requires active prediction of grammatical completions

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Turn-taking requires active listening strategies that take into account

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">prosody

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Turn-taking is collaborative behaviour

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Speaking in different contexts requires different kinds of interactions

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">How can learners improve their turn-taking skills? '''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Awareness raising comes before production

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Introduce the learner to some facts about turn-taking

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Begin with structured tasks and small stretches of talk

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Use minimal responses to build confidence

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Stage the tasks so as to provide a cycle of production and selfreflection

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Implications for teaching speaking 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The language event

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Starting with topics

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Starting with texts

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.1. Preparation activities ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.2. Discourse activities ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.3. Language activities ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.4. Interaction activities ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Teaching speaking (Brown)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">   Oral communication skills in pedagogical research

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    -conversational discourse

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     -Teaching pronunciation

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">                                                                                                                                                           -Accuracy and fluency

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">    -Affective factors

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">    -The interaction effect

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">    -Questions about intelligibility

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">    -The growth of spoken corpora

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">    -Genres of spoken language.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">What makes speaking difficult?

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-clustering

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Redundancy

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Reduced forms

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-performance variables

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-colloquial language

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Rate of delivery

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-stress,rhythm,and intonation

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Interaction.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">Type of classroom speaking performance

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Imitative

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Intensive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Responsive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Transactional

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Interpersonal

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Extensive.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">Principles for teaching speaking skills

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-focus on both fluency and accuracy,depending on your objective.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-provide intrinsically motivating techniques.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-provide appropriate feedback and correction.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-encourage the development of speaking strategies.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">What are the factors within learners that affect pronunciation

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Native language

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Age

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Exposure

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Innate phonetic ability

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Identity and language ego

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">-Motivation and concern for good pronunciation.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left;tab-stops:335.05pt right 451.3pt">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">