Listening skills by Nahid Esfandiari

Approaches to learning and teaching listening 

Listening within an environmentalist approach 

This assumption stemmed from the environmentalist approach to language

learning, which considered that learning a language was a mechanical process

based on a stimulus-response pattern. In such an approach, listeners’ stimulus consisted in hearing L2 spoken words and the response involved identifying and organizing

those words into sentences. Thus, listeners’ main role was simply based on

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the recognition and discrimination of sounds rather than the understanding

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of what they were listening to .In fact, apart from learning

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">how to discriminate sounds and pronunciation aspects such as intonation

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">patterns, sentence stress and rhythm, little importance was granted to listening

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">under this view since it “was simply taken for granted

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Consequently, it was assumed that just by repeating, imitating and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">memorizing what listeners heard, listening comprehension took place.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">These environmentalist considerations about learning to listen resulted

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in the Audiolingual teaching methodology. This instructional approach

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">emphasized the practice of listening by engaging learners in a series of

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">exercises that focused on pronunciation drills, memorization of prefabricated

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="tab-stops:272.05pt right 451.3pt"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">                                                                                           . patterns and imitation of dialogues

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Listening within an innatist approach 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">listeners’ role also changed from merely recognizing sounds to actively participating in the comprehension process through the use of mental strategies that were necessary for

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">them to understand what they were listening to. Consequently, it was assumed

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">that for listening comprehension to take place, the primary condition

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">was to understand language rather than simply repeat, imitate and memorize   .The mentalistic aspects underlying this innatist view to learning to listen

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">were adopted by a series of educators who developed teaching methodologies

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">based on what Rost has called <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">initial listening <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">or <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">listening first 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">(i.e., listening should be the first aspect to be tackled in the language classroom).

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Listening within an interactionist approach 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">By the late 1970s, the role of listening assumed greater importance due to the interactionist

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">approach to language learning. it was claimed that listening should focus on a whole

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">piece of discourse rather than listening to single words or short phrases

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">spoken in isolation.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a more dynamic and interactive process of meaning creation during the listening event was now emphasized under two main views of comprehension. On the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.one hand, the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">information processing <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">view of listening claimed that comprehension

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">of a given message only occurred when it was internally reproduced

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in the listeners’ mind. Such a view included two comprehension

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">models: 1) the Perception, Parsing and Utilization model

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the Identify, Search, File and Use model which followed

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a sequential order of input, perception, recognition, and understanding

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">stages .On the other hand, the <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">constructivist <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">view of listening

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">emphasized the fact that listeners did not merely receive and process

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">meaning, but rather constructed such meaning according to their own purposes

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">for listening as well as their own prior knowledge.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The schema theory proposed by Rumelhart. Schemata can be of two types: <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">content schemata 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">formal schemata <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The former includes topic familiarity, cultural knowledge and previous

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">experience with a particular field. Thus, if listeners are familiar with the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">given topic they are listening to, their content schemata can be activated

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and, consequently, comprehension becomes much easier. The latter, formal

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">schemata, involves knowledge about discourse forms, rhetorical conventions

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as well as the structural organization of different text types, such as an

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">academic lecture. <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">As can be implied from this interactionist view, since the 1980s listening

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">has been considered as a primary vehicle for language learning, achieving

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">a status of significant and central importance in both language learning

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and language teaching fields It has been acknowledged

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">that listening is a complex, social and interactive process in

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">which “the listener is actively engaged in constructing meaning from a

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">variety of contexts and input sources

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Teaching listening within a communicative competence framework 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Discourse competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the core of the proposed framework of communicative

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">competence is the listening skill since it is the manifestation of interpreting

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">spoken discourse and a way of manifesting the rest of the components.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Discourse competence implies an understanding of how language

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">operates at a level above the sentence. It involves knowledge of discourse

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">features such as markers, coherence and cohesion as well as formal schemata

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in relation to the particular purpose and situational context of the spoken

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">text.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">listeners play an active role in which activation from

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the rest of the components included in the proposed framework (i.e., linguistic,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">pragmatic, intercultural and strategic) is necessary to achieve overall

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">communicative competence.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Linguistic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">includes all the elements of the linguistic system

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">such as aspects concerning grammar, phonology and vocabulary

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Knowledge of these features set at the bottom

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">level of the listening process is necessary for listeners to decode a given

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">spoken text., listeners’ grammatical knowledge enables

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">them to apply the rules of morphology and syntax to recognize the inflections

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">on words as well as understand whether the sentences being heard are

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">cohesively and coherently well formed

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">  

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Pragmatic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Pragmatic competence involves an understanding of the function or illocutionary

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">force of a spoken utterance in a given situation, as well as the sociopragmatic

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">factors necessary to recognize not just what that utterance

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">says, in linguistic terms, but also what it is meant by it. Thus, in order to

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">interpret the speaker’s actual intended meaning when producing a particular

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">utterance, listeners need to be aware of the situational and participant variables

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">as well as politeness issues implied in such utterance.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">participant and politeness issues such as status, social distance

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and the degree of imposition involved in the delivery of the spoken

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">message also play an important role for listeners’ interpretation of such

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">message.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.'''4. Intercultural competence'''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Intercultural competence implies having knowledge of both cultural and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">non-verbal communicative factors in order to appropriately interpret a

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">given spoken text. The presence of cultural references is something inherent

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in any piece of discourse

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the knowledge of non-verbal means of communication,

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">such as body language, facial expressions or eye contact, also plays an important

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">role in the appropriate interpretation of a given spoken text. Listeners’

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">awareness of those elements will provide them with important clues

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">that enable them to improve their communicative ability when listening.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.5. Strategic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">This competence involves the mastery of both communication and

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">learning strategies that will allow listeners to successfully construct meaning

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">from oral input. Thus, knowledge of different learning strategies, which

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">have been classified as cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">and the ability to use them effectively has been considered of particular importance in L2 listening.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">four key areas

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in which research has provided insights into the teaching of L2 listening.

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Area 1: Accessibility of input

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Area 2: Top down processing

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Area 3: Bottom up processing

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Area 4: Listener status

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Accessibility of input 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Functions of input

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Factors that affect quality of input

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Relevance 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Difficulty 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Authenticity 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Research questions

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Top down processing 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Top down processing –activating background knowledge and expectations 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">through lexical access– guides the listening process and provides 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">connection with higher level reasoning. ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Activating schemata

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Lexical access

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Research questions

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Bottom up processing 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Training in bottom up processing is an essential element in listening 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">comprehension. Although influence of the L1 may prevent efficient bottom ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">up processing (metrical segmentation and word recognition), specific 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">training will promote better listening. ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Components of bottom up processing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Feature detection 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Metrical segmentation 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Research questions

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Listener status 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">The listener’s perceived status influences comprehension, participation, 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">and value of input for language acquisition. Engagement by the L2 ''

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">user –assumption of an “active listening” role –promotes acquisition of 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">listening skills and strategies. ''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Analyzing listener problems in discourse

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Strategy instruction

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Research questions

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Materials 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Authentic or non-authentic material?

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Other criteria for materials selection

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Needs analysis 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Motivation 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Level of difficulty 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">'''<span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Learning strategies for listening? '''

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Concept

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Principles that should underlie all listening comprehension courses

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Types of instruction

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Development of a strategy-based listening course

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The need for methodological change 

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Learner responsibility

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.2. Authenticity

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Task-based learning

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Intercultural competence

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.5. Changes in the way English is used worldwide

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">A proposed listening syllabus 

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Becoming a good listener

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Helping students to create their own listening texts and tasks

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Microskills (aspects of the grammatical knowledge mentioned in the

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">figure above)

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Adapting published materials so that they contain more of the “features”

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">mentioned in Section 5 above

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Telephoning

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">- Listening projects

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">

<p class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:left;line-height:normal;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">An interactive model of listening comprehension (Brown)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">    Listening comprehension is the psychomotor process of receiving sound waves through the ear and transmitting nerve impulses to the brain.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">What makes listening difficult?

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Clustering

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Redundancy

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Reduced forms

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Performance variables

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Colloquial language

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Rate of delivery

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Stress,rhythm,and intonation

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Interaction

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Types of classroom listening performance

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Reactive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Intensive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Responsive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Selective

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Extensive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Interactive

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Principles for teaching listening skills

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-Include a focus on listening in an integrated-skills course

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-Utilize authentic language and contexts

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-carefully consider the form of listeners'responses

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-Encourage the development of listening strategies

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">-Include both bottom-up and top-down listening techniques.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">