Reading skills by Nahid Esfandiari







Approaches to learning and teaching reading 

'''1. Reading within an environmentalist approach '''

Up to the end of the 1960senvironmentalist ideas that avoided speculation about the workings of the human mind and concentrated only on observable facts outside the person.

Moreover, modeling and practicing the correct structures time after time were paramount.Under such an influence, reading was viewed primarily as a passive, perceptual process.

Environmentalist ideas shaped not just the theoretical conceptions of what reading was but

also research Yet early reading research focused chiefly on the nature of perception during reading and it became mainly restricted to the relation between stimuli as words and responses as word recognition

<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Reading comprehension by focusing on the development of decoding skills, and their major instructional task was to teach readers to discriminate among the visual symbols they encountered on a printed page before they could translate them into word sounds

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">'''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">2. Reading within an innatist approach '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Chomsky the basis for the innatist theory of language learning which

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">claims that children are born with a predisposition to language acquisition.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Goodman conducted one of the first studies to explain the role of

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">errors or <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">miscues <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">made by readers when reading aloud

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">and his experiment resulted in two important findings. First, learners were

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">able to read a far greater number of words in context than without a context

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">(i.e., word lists). Second, miscues were due to the reader’s intention to

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">make sense from the written text

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Goodman posited that reading was a <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">psycholinguistic guessing 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">game <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">in which readers guess or predict the text’s meaning on the basis

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">of textual information and activation of background knowledge, then confirm

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">or correct their guesses, and thereby reconstruct the message. In addition,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">he described the three sources of information (what he called <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">cue <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">systems)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">that readers make use of to reconstruct text meaning: 1) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">graphophonic 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">cues <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">(or knowledge of the visual and phonemic features); 2) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">syntactic 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">cues <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">(or knowledge of syntactic constrains); and 3) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">semantic cues <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">(orknowledge of the meaning of words).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">3,Reading within an interactionist approach 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">A major development within this field was the emergence of story

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">grammars. A story grammar is a structural account of narrative stories that

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">readers develop, based on acquisition of knowledge about human interactions and repeated exposure to stories

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the story grammar categories for Stein and

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Glenn <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">setting <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which consists of characters and surroundings;

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">2) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">initiating event <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which marks a change in the story environment; 3)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">internal response <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which represents the goal; 4) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">attempt <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which is the effort

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">to achieve the goal; 5) <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"">consequence <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, the attainment or non-attainment of the

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">goal, and 6) <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">reaction <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">, which is the outcome of the consequence.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">A schema theory, in Rumelhart’s words “is a theory about how knowledge is represented and

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">about how that representation facilitates the use of the knowledge in particular ways.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">researchers   found that an <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">interactive <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">process, i.e., it was a dynamic interaction between

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the writer and the reader in which the reader creates meaning from the text by activating his stored knowledge and extending it with the new information supplied by the text

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Teaching reading within a communicative competence framework 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Hymes proposed the notion of <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">communicative competence, <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">which included both grammatical competence as well as the rules of language use in social context and the norms of appropriacy.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">In such a construct, the reading skill plays an essential role in facilitating

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the acquisition of communicative competence

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">1.Discourse competence 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the core of the proposed framework of communicative competence is the reading skill

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Discourse competence involves the knowledge of written discourse features

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">such as markers, cohesion and coherence as well as formal schemata (i.e.,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">knowledge of how different discourse types are organized) with reference

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">to the particular communicative goal and context of the written text.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">2.Linguistic competence 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Linguistic competence consists of the elements of the linguistic system

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">such as grammar rules and knowledge of vocabulary. Moreover, the ability

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">to read also involves the mastery of the mechanics of the language, such as

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">the alphabet and punctuation All these features

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">are set at the bottom level of the reading process and they are fundamental

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">for the readers to be able to decode the written text.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">'''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.3. Pragmatic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Pragmatic competence involves an understanding of the illocutionary force

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">of an utterance by being aware of situational and participant variables

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">within which the utterance takes place, as well as politeness issues. This

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">competence has been regarded as essential to understanding spoken communication

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">in which the social contextual factors are explicit

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">'''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.4. Intercultural competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Intercultural competence refers to the knowledge of how to interpret written

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">texts appropriately within their sociocultural context. Therefore, it involves

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">knowledge of the cultural factors such as knowledge of the sociocultural

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">background of the target language community, knowledge of dialects,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">and cross-cultural awareness

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">'''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">.5. Strategic competence '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">This competence refers to the possession of both communication

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">and learning strategies With reference to reading, the former refers to the ability to use reading strategies to make up for interpretation problems, whereas the latter refers to the ability

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">to use reading strategies to enhance the communicative act between the

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">writer and the reader.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Implications for reading instruction from reading research 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">These implications provide a way to examine how research

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">supports effective reading-instruction practices, and how teaching,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">materials development, and curriculum design could become more effective.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">1. Ensure word recognition fluency

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">2. Emphasize vocabulary learning and create a vocabulary-rich environment

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">3. Activate background knowledge in appropriate ways

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">4. Ensure effective language knowledge and general comprehension

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">skills

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">5. Teach text structures and discourse organization

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">6. Promote the strategic reader rather than teach individual strategies

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">7. Build reading fluency and rate

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">8. Promote extensive reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">9. Develop intrinsic motivation for reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Reading strategies 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">strategies can be categorized

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">into metacognitive (including purpose-oriented, comprehension

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">monitoring, and strategies that focus on learning from text), cognitive (including

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">strategies for interacting with the author and the text, strategies

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">involving different ways of reading, strategies for handling unknown

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">words, and those making use of one’s prior knowledge in some way), as

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">well as social and affective strategies, among others.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">'''<span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">How do good readers use reading strategies? '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">good strategy users from the reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">research is that they are “strategic,” which means that they:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Are primarily focused on the drive to obtain <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">meaning <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">from a text, not on

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">“using strategies”.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Are aware of their <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"">purpose <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">for reading, whether it be for pleasure, for

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">obtaining important information needed to perform a task (e.g., for performing

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">a procedure, writing a paper, making a decision), or to learn

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">something new

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Overview a text to decide if it is relevant to their purpose and to identify

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the portions that might be particularly relevant or helpful

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Use strategies in ordered hierarchies that are generated from an analysis

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">of the steps in the process needed to accomplish their task

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Know and utilize <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">multiple <span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">strategies, including cognitive, metacognitive,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">affective, and other types, integrating and orchestrating their use in relation

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">to each other, and then evaluating their effectiveness in achieving

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">the purpose

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Make use of, and integrate their prior knowledge, not only of the world,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">but also of the nature of texts, and of how they have used different

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">strategies for different purposes in the past, to help them make sense of

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">what they read

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Make particularly effective use of metacognitive strategies, the “higherlevel

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">thinking” (or “thinking about how one is thinking”), the monitoring

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">system that readers use in order to direct and control their overall

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">strategy use. They use metacognitive strategies for planning, selecting

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">and using strategies, monitoring comprehension and effectiveness of

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">strategy use, and learning

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Make effective use of varying strategies for handling unknown vocabulary,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">with the quality of their strategy use more important than the quantity,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">    - Differ in their use of strategies, depending on their gender, language and

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">cultural background, age, beliefs, motivations, or learning style

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">     - Know if their strategy use was effective or not by assessing whether

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">they were able to accomplish their purpose

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">The importance of reading for a purpose 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">In “real-world” reading, there are many different authentic purposes for

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">which readers read

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">   When we have a purpose for reading from the outset, our ability to accomplish

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">our task can give us important clues about whether we have understood

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">what we read.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">   Fostering effective reading strategy instruction

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">   - Focus on establishing a purpose for reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">     - Extend over time – learning to become strategic readers is a long-term

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">developmental process,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">           - Be multi-componential, and thus, should focus on the teaching of multiple

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">integrated strategies, oriented toward specific purposes.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">       - Be different for different learners, depending on their language background,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">ethnicity, goals of study, proficiency level, learning styles, and

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">gender.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Involve either explicit explanation or modeling (e.g., by “thinking

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">aloud”) of strategies by teachers for students

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Focus on helping students understand when and where to use strategies,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">either by explaining it to them directly, or by having them abstract it

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">while practicing the use of strategies.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Teach students to monitor how they are doing in their strategy use, and

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">to take corrective action when problems are identified;

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Include specific information about the benefits of the strategies being

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">taught, and thus, to motivate students to use strategies regularly

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Teach strategy use in context-integrated into the curriculum and into

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">course content, rather than as a separate subject

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">- Teach students non-strategic knowledge along with the strategies

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">non-strategic knowledge involves background knowledge that

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">readers need in order to make sense of what they are reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Using purposeful reading to develop strategic L2 readers 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Integrate purpose into the overall curriculum design

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Begin each lesson with a purpose

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Teach students to regulate their strategies for achieving specific purpose

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Help students access their world knowledge

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Build students’ vocabulary recognition through multiple exposures

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">below illustrates some of the most common

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">and troublesome beliefs and behaviors that may be barriers

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Language use, cultural identity, and translation

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Vocabulary acquisition and automaticity

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Sentence pattern processing and automaticity

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Level, amount, and appropriateness of materials

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">L1 environment vs L2 environment

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">How to build reading fluency 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Begin at the beginning – with your own reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Find plenty of appropriate materials

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Provide continuous motivation

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Vocabulary

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Reading: The narrow perspective 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">. Component approaches

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">1. Language competence in reading ''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">2. <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Syntax in reading 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">''<span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">.3. Vocabulary ''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">4. <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Background knowledge 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">5. <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Reading ability” in L2 reading 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">6 <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Reading for language learning 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">7Reading skills 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">Process models of reading

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">1 <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Data-driven models 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">2 <span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Concept-driven models 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">3Interactive models 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">4Reinstating the bottom 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"">Reading: The broad perspective 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">.1. Consequences of literacy

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">2. Social dimensions in literacy

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">3Implications for teaching

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed">

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Research on Reading a Second Language (Brown)

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1.Bottom-up and top-down processing

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span style="font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">        In bottom-up processing, readers must first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signale (letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases,grammatical,cues, discourse markers) and use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms to impose some sort of order on these signals.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     Top-down or conceptually driven, processing in which we draw on our own intelligence and experience to understand atext.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2.Schema theory and background knowledge

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     Schema theory,the hallmark of which is that a text does not by itself carry meaning .The reader brings information ,knowledge ,emotion, experience,and culture to the printed word. Schema theory is not anew construct.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     There are two categories of schemata; content and formal schemata. content schemata include what about people, the world, culture,and the universe while formal schemata consist of our knowledge about language and discourse structure.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">   3.Teaching strategic reading

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     Instruction should of course provide an optimal mix of each, but Neil Anderson advocated a healthy dose of strategy –based instruction ,including metacognitive strategies of self- planning, monitoring, and evaluating one's own reading processes.William Grabe stressed the coordinated use of multiple strategies while students are reading.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4.Extensive reading

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">     Extensive reading is a key to student gains in reading ability, linguistic competence ,vocabulary,spelling,andwriting Green and Oxford found that reading for pleasure and reading without looking up all the unknown words were both highly correlated with overall language proficiency.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5.Fluency and reading rate

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">      Anderson is devoted to increasing reading rate, with suggestions for using skimming, scanning,predicting,and idedtifying main ideas as approaches to increasing fluency.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6.Focuse on vocabulary

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">      A strong relationship between vocabulary knowledge and late reading ability.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7.The role of affect and culture

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">      Language ego, self-esteem,empathy,and motivation undergird the acquisition of spoken discourse, reading is subject to variability within the affective domain. Culture plays an active role in motivating an rewarding people for literacy.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">8.Adult literacy training

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">          A significant number of immigrant arriving in various nonnative countries and cultures are nonliterate in the native languages, posing special issues in the teaching of English.What are sometimes referred to as "skills-based"(bottom-up)and "strategies-based"(top-down) approaches are both used in adult literacy training.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Strategies for Reading Comprehension

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1.Identify the purpose in reading.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2.Use graphemic rule and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3.Use efficient silent reading teaching for improving fluency.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4.Skim the text for main ideas.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5.Scan the text for specific information.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6.Use semantic mapping or clustering.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7.Guess when you aren't certain.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">8.Analyze vocabulary.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">9.Distinguish between literal and implied meaning.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">10.Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">Principles for teaching reading skills

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">1.In an integrated course,don't overlook a specific focus on reading skills.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">2.Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">3.Balance authenticity and readability in choosing texts.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">4.Encourage the development of reading strategies.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">5.Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">6.Fllow the SQ3R sequence.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">7.plan on prerading,during-reading,and after-reading phases.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left">8.Build an assessment aspect into your techniques.

<p align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align:left"><span lang="FA" style="font-size:18.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri">

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: left;line-height:normal;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none;direction:ltr;unicode-bidi:embed"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"">

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